Thousands of visitors come to Cusco every day on their way to see the ancient city of Machu Picchu. But Sacsayhuamán is actually the largest structure – anywhere – built by the Incas. This magnificent complex lies on the hill on the northern outskirts of Cusco.
Sacsayhuamán
The oral history passed down by the Incas tells us that Cusco was built to resemble a puma. The tail is where the two rivers meet; the body is the town of Cusco with its houses; its heart is the Coricancha, near the town square. If this is true, then Sacsayhuamán, perched upon the hill to the northwest of the city, is the head of the puma.
Cusco, Peru
12,142 feet
11.5 square miles
1438 AD
30’ tall x 16’ wide x 13’ thick, weighing 125 tons
Plan Your Visit to Sacsayhuamán
History of Sacsayhuamán
Sacsayhuamán is credited as being built by the Incas between 1438 – 1528. However, archaeologists have recently found pottery fragments and other evidence that indicate the hilltop was occupied by the Killke as early as 900 AC. There are also accounts left by Spanish historians, such as Jesuit Priest Agnelio Olivia, who said that the stonework at Sacsayhuamán was ancient even at the time of the Spanish Conquest. The Incas themselves did not know who built it. We do know that there was construction at the site during the reigns of Pachacúti Inca and Túpac Inca. But it is possible that the Incas were building on top of an existing structure.
The construction during the 15th century was possible because of the Inca mit’a system. As the Inca Empire conquered and absorbed other tribes, they required their new citizens to work on communal labor projects for a portion of each year. It was this system that powered the construction of roads, bridges, terraces, and aqueducts that are still in use today.
Records state that 20,000 men worked at Sacsayhuamán for a period of 50 – 90 years. The laborers worked on rotation, allowing individuals to return home when they were sick or needed to care for their own families and land. While they were at the work site, they divided into groups based on ethnicity, led by an overseer. Each section was built by a different tribal group drafted by the mit’a system. When the Incas’ work at Sacsayhuaman was complete, it was the largest complex we know of in the Inca Empire.
The Fortress
Sacsayhuamán is built on a hill overlooking the city of Cusco. Its strategic position, massive walls, and defensible design has led many to call it a fortress. But the Incas were rarely invaded by enemy states, especially not so close to their capital of Cusco. It is more likely the complex played a ceremonial, rather than defensive, role for the Incas. In fact, records show that construction at Sacsayhuamán began in 1438, commissioned by Inca Pachacútec to commemorate his rise to power after defeating the Chanka people.
There is no record of battle at Sacsayhuamán until the Spanish invasion. In 1533, Francisco Pizzaro conquered Cusco. The troops stationed there numbered less than 250, so they consolidated their forces near the main plaza of the city rather than up the hill in Sacsayhuamán. In 1536, Manco Inca escaped the Spaniards who were using him as a puppet leader. He raised an army of 200,000 Inca warriors and laid siege to the city of Cusco, using Sacsayhuamán as his base. After 10 months of fighting, the Spanish retook the stronghold, forcing Manca Inca to withdraw to Ollantaytambo.
The Walls
Upon approaching Sacsayhuamán, the first things visitors today will notice are the walls. They are massive! There are three levels, or terraces, that stretch over 1,000 feet along the side of the hill facing away from Cusco. The walls form a zigzag pattern which have a dual purpose of aesthetics and defense. The zigzag shape makes the stronghold impossible to attack head on, allowing the defenders to have ample crossfire opportunities. Aesthetically, the angles of the walls mimic the mountains in the distance, creating a very pleasing view of this magnificent Inca complex. Some say that the zigzag walls represent the teeth in the head of the puma that Sacsayhuamán was built to resemble.
The stones used for the construction of the walls are some of the largest of any building in pre-Hispanic America. The largest are 16 feet high, 8 feet wide, and weigh over 100 tons. Rather than using repeating shapes, the stones are irregularly shaped with each one custom-fitted to the next. Incredibly, these massive stones fit together so tightly that no mortar was needed. The blocks interlocking shapes and the overall slope of the walls were building techniques designed to protect against earthquakes, which are common in the area. This was an effective strategy as most of the walls are still standing, centuries after they were erected!
The Gates
Each of the zigzag walls at Sacsayhuamán has a gate, or doorway, through which a visitor must pass to reach the next level. These gates are staggered along the length of the wall, a defensive strategy to prevent the breaching of the walls. Between each level of walls there is a flattened terrace 25-30 feet wide. The alleys are lined with gravel and there are channels to allow for the drainage of rainwater.
The Rooms & Doors
At the top of the hill that Sacsayhuamán was built on, there are the remains of a complex of rooms and buildings. The Spanish took all the stones that were easily moved to build their houses in the city of Cusco. Today, there are only a few remnants of what must have been a vast structure. Pedro Sancho, the secretary of Francisco Pizzaro, wrote that it was more magnificent than the works of the Roman Empire.
Trapezoidal doors, like those found at many of the Inca sites throughout the area, connect the rooms atop Sacasyhuamán. The vertical sides of the door lean slightly inward, and a single large stone lintel is place across the top. Some of the doors have a design dubbed “double jamb doorways.” These have an inner recessed lip several inches wide. This could have been a way to place a wooden door in the opening. Archeologists have found a variety of carved stone artifacts that could serve this purpose. Of course, no original wooden door has survived the passage of time. There were once as many as 36 doorways, but time and the repurposing of stones mean only 18 remain standing today.
Historians are not sure what the rooms at Sacsayhuaman were for. In a report to Pizzaro, Sancho listed some of the items they found within: arms, armor, food, textiles, ceramics, tools, and precious metals. He estimated that 5,000 men could fit inside. Archaeologists believe that at least some of the buildings in Sacsayhuamán were temples – including one for the sun god Inti.
In 1944, Cusqueños began to stage reenactments of an Inca ritual, Inti Raymi. Traditionally, Inti Raymi lasted 15 days. During this time, dances and rituals were performed to honor Inti and guarantee a prosperous harvest. Present-day Cusqueños celebrate Inti Raymi on the winter solstice, June 24. They perform several rites and give a report to the community of the four regions. These festivities take place at Sacsayhuamán and a few other Inca sites around Cusco.
The Towers
In the time of the Incas, there were three multi-storey towers at the top of the Sacsayhuamán. Today, only the foundations remain, leaving archaeologists unsure of their exact purpose. Some of the best descriptions come from Luis E. Valcarel, a Peruvian anthropologist who was on the team that unearthed Sacsayhuamán in the 1930s. He theorized that all three towers were used as water reservoirs. Valcarel observed channels that connect the towers, as well as a series of settling wells, vertical conduits, curves, and jumps that lead throughout the Sacsayhuamán complex. The casual visitor can easily see many of these features today.
The tallest tower was called Muyucmarca. Its round foundation can clearly be seen on the western end of Sacsayhuamán. The tower was 100 feet high, with three concentric, circular stone walls connected by a series of radial walls. Judging by the existing foundation, the outer circle of the tower was 75 feet in diameter. The center chamber was thought to be a water reservoir. During the excavation of Sacsayhuaman, Valcarel observed many channels for water to exit Muyucmarca, but was unable to determine how the water got in. It is likely there was a natural spring close by. He calculated that the tower could hold 12,000 gallons of water. One chronicler from the time of the Spanish conquest commented that the rooms surrounding Muyucmarca were decorated with gold and silver, designed for the Inca royalty.
There are two other towers in Sacsayhuaman, both rectangular and smaller than Muyucmarca. Sallaqmarca was located in the center of the hill and Paucamarca was on the eastern end. These could have been water reservoirs, watchtowers, barracks or storage rooms.
The Esplanade
In front of the terraced walls of Sacsayhuamán, there is an enormous open field, or esplanade. The Incas may have used this as a parade ground, for battle re-enactments, for sports or for ceremonies. The plaza is large enough to hold thousands of participants and spectators.
The Rodadero
Across the Esplanade from Sacsayhuamán, there is a large natural rock formation called the Rodadero. Benches, steps, ledges, and nooks have been carved throughout this diorite volcanic rock. Near the middle, facing the Sacsayhuaman complex, is the Trono, a successions of seats carved into the rock. In the Quechua language, this is called K’ussiluc Jink’ian, where the monkey climbs. The throne’s position near the center of the Esplanade would have been the perfect place for the royal Incas to preside over any games or ceremonies held below.
The Rodadero could also have been used for astronomical observations. It is interesting to note that many of the features of Sacsayhuamán align with significant astronomical points. The three entry gates, for instances, seem to align with the solstices and equinoxes. The walls of the main tower, Muyucmarca, aligned with the zenith of sunrise and the anti-zenith of sunset. The Incas were clearly atuned to the natural cycles of the world, and incorporated this into their buildings.
The Suchuna
On the backside of the Rodadero outcropping are a series of smooth “slides”. Some say that the slides formed along a fault line when the igneous rocks cooled. Others believe that the grooves were made when blocks of rock moved past each.
While archeologists and geologists don’t agree on exactly how these slides were made, one thing they can agree on is – they’re fun! Children (and adults) have been sliding down these formations for centuries, as evidenced by the memoirs of Garcilaso de la Vega, a 16th-century historian. He wrote that Inca children, including himself, often slid down the polished grooves. Does that make Sacsayhuamán the world’s oldest amusement park?
The Muyukancha
A short distance to the north of the Sacsayhuamán complex is a vast round field, currently covered in grass, known as the Muyukancha. Along part of its circumference are three terraces, smaller than those at the main Sacsayhuamán complex. At ground level, several stones ring the perimeter. Notches cut into the stones may have been used for seating or as a base to display statues.
This round amphitheater is also called the Qocha Chincana. Qochas are an ancient agricultural technique used on the Andean highlands. The depressions, either natural or manmade, can be used as cropland, pasture, or flooded for water storage. Often several depressions are linked together with canals, creating a water management system. The concave structure reduces the amount of evaporation caused by the sun and wind. The Qocha at Sacsayhuamán can hold 500,000 gallons of water.
There are at least four natural springs on the periphery of the Qocha Chincana amphitheater. Visitors today can see channels carved into some of the stone work, creating a vast hydraulic system designed to drain into the large reservoir. Many large boulders caved into steps and chairs are scattered outside of the amphitheater. It is easy to imagine this area as a place of relaxation, with Incas lounging around the perimeter of a large pond.
The Chincanas
There are two tunnels near Sacsayhuaman, La Chincana Chica and La Chincana Grande. These initially formed by the erosion of water through the limestone rock, and later expanded by human hands. The smaller tunnel, La Chincana Chica, is about 130 feet long. The passage leads through a rock formation just below the eastern edge of the Qocha Chincana. Visitors can walk through this short yet winding passageway, emerging near some steps that lead up to the grassy expanse of the Qocha.
La Chincana Grande lies 650 feet away to the north of Sacsayhuaman. It is currently closed, and has been for many years. Legend says it leads to the Coricancha, the Sun Temple, near the main square of Cusco. In 1609, Garcialaso de la Vega wrote that La Chincana Grande was part of “a network of underground passages, as long as the towers themselves… Some of the tunnels reached Cusco… Other tunnels went into the very heart of the Andes.” In 1923, an expedition set off to explore the tunnels, beginning in Cusco and heading west. After 12 days, only one member of the team returned, telling tales of twists, obstacles, and traps. His colleagues disavowed him, saying that he had lost his mind.
Varying Styles
An astute observer will notice several different building styles used throughout Sacsayhuamán. The megalithic, irregularly-shaped and precisely-fitted stones at the base of the walls are obviously the most impressive. On the upper level, the stones are similar in color but not as large, mostly rectangular, and laid in even rows. Confusing the eye, there are areas with neatly laid, small stones of a lighter color that were placed by the archaeology team that excavated Sacsayhuamán in the 1930s. Elsewhere, along paths, there are short walls with stones loosely fitted together. Luis Valcarel argued that it was common for Incas to use different building styles, but there is also a case to be made that the stonework was done by different civilizations.
Vitrified Rock
Vitrification is the transformation of a substance into a non-crystalline amorphous solid. This is a term commonly used in glasswork and ceramics, but stones can also be vitrified when superheated and rapidly cooled. The result are stones that, despite thousands of years exposed to the elements, still shine like polished glass. Scientists have tried to recreate this effect. Neither manual polishing (as proposed by John McCauley) nor the heat generated by a typical bonfire give the same characteristics. A spectral analysis performed by the University of Utrecht, Holland, indicates that some sort of ceramic paste was applied to the stone and then heated to form a glaze.
Geo-Polymer
The chemical composition of the limestone blocks do match those of stone found in nearby quarries…. almost. Recent tests show to that one thing is missing: fossils. Samples taken from the quarry have inclusions of organic fossils, while those from the blocks at Sacsayhuamán do not. Working from this interesting test result, researchers did a series of experiments to show that the Sacsayhuamán walls are made of hydraulic lime, used as a type of geo-polymer or cement. The stones obtained their shiny appearance after somehow being heated to 1000º C. This could have been from a lava flow (possibly the same flow that formed the Suchuna) or by using an undetermined man-made method.
One final thought…
Academics argue that if the Incas did employ an advanced method for shaping stones, it would surely have been written down. And, perhaps, it was.
The Incas used a form of writing known as the khipu, an intricate system of cords and knots that allowed them to record a vast amount of knowledge. Unfortunately, this archaic form of writing was looked askance at during the Spanish Inquisition. In 1583, the Roman Catholic Church ordered the destruction of every khipu in the former Inca Empire. They were quite successful. Today, only 831 khipus remain worldwide. So it is highly possible that the Incas did have written knowledge of advanced techniques – and that the knowledge was destroyed.
Our Day at Sacsayhuamán
We headed to Sacsayhuamán late one morning in January 2024. The site is located less than a mile from Plaza de Armas, the main square of Cusco. But it is 600 feet straight up the side of the hill! We decided to conserve our strength and take one of the many taxis that cruise the streets of Cusco looking for tourists.
“Adondé vas?” the taxi driver asked.
“Uh… Vamos a Sock-kay… um.. sacks…”
“Sacsayhuamán? Si, si! In English, you say ‘sexy woman’.” our cab driver exclaimed enthusiastically.
We laughed. Contrary to our cheerful cab driver, “Sacsayhuamán” actually comes from a Quechua word usually translated as satisfied falcon or sometimes, royal eagle or city of stone. This was the first Inca site we visited during our time in Cusco. We weren’t sure what to expect but we knew it would be big – bigger than Machu Picchu – the biggest Inca site anywhere, in fact.
Buying our Boleto Turistico Tickets
Our cab driver dropped us off at the parking lot to the north of Sacsayhuamán. We followed a handful of other tourists toward the ticket booth to purchase our Boleto Turistico del Cusco. We chose the slightly more expensive “Completo” ticket, which allowed us to enter a total of 15 sites throughout the Sacred Valley over the course of 10 days. Fortunately we had brought enough Peruvian soles, as they did not accept credit cards or US dollars.
We didn’t realize it at the time, but we were entering the site at the far end, away from the Sacsayhuamán complex. We followed the path up the hill in front of us, which led towards the Muyukancha. Walls with stones two to three feet big created terracing along the hillside. The stones were fitted against natural rock formations that rose up from the ground. The Incas are famous for their masonry, and we were excited to see our first samples.
A Detour through the Chicana Chica
About halfway up the hill we came to a side trail leading into a short canyon formed by the natural rock formations. There were nooks and seats carved into the side of the rock. We went further into the canyon, investigating. The trail disappeared into the side of the rock wall. So, naturally, we followed it! There was an opening in the rock that turned abruptly right, then left. The tunnel was long enough that not much daylight made it in, and we shuffled along using the feeble light of our cell phones. After a hundred feet, we saw the light at the end of the tunnel. Wow! I realized that we’d just walked through the Chicana Chica!
We emerged into a grassy amphitheater. A sign informed us this was the Qocha. At the time, I had not learned about this ancient water management technique. The many carved channels leading into the amphitheater intrigued me. Of course, I later realized this was part of the hydraulic system that directs water to the Qocha reservoir.
Spread around the amphitheater were enormous boulders that had clearly been carved by human hands. I struggled to climb up into a huge throne, earning myself a shrill whistle from one of the guards that roamed the grounds. Behind the rock, Joe found a basin that looked like it at one time held water. Farther down the trail there was a huge rock outcropping with stairs carved upside-down. Fascinating and puzzling at the same time!
Fun on the Slides
We climbed out of the basin of the Qocha and were presented with an unusual site. A Peruvian sat atop a strange rock formation, preparing to slide down a long, natural chute. We had found the Suchuna, or rock slides. I wasn’t brave enough to try myself, but it looked like you could get plenty of momentum sliding down the chute.
We continued climbing up to the peak of the hill. Finally we got our first view of Sacsayhuamán. It was massive! The walls stretch for 1,700 feet, zigzagging back and forth 40 times. And even from five hundred feet away at the top of the hill, we could tell that the stones used to build the wall were massive. We took our time to appreciate the view before descending the stairs down the hill. I got a thrill thinking about the thousands of Incas who walked down those same steps.
We crossed the Esplanade, a wide grassy parade ground in front of Sacsayhuamán. The closer we got, the bigger the stones seemed. Many of them were easily twice as tall as me. The most remarkable thing to me was that no two stones were shaped the same. There was no consistency – four, five, six sides; angles more or less than 90 degrees; massive stones next to stones that were merely three feet tall.
Entering the Citadel of Sacsayhuamán
We passed through the first gate and began the trek to the top of Sacsayhuamán. I noticed many water spouts cut into the stones. Some of these helped to drain water from the terrace during the rainy season. Others were aqueducts which brought clean water to different sections of the complex. Water management is such an important component of any city. I think this obvious planning more than anything else really shows how advanced the Incas were.
We finally reached the top level of Sacsayhuamán. The main structures built by the Incas, three large towers, are no longer standing. The Spanish tore them down shortly after taking over Cusco. The foundations are still visible, and some rooms are still mostly intact on the east side.
An Unexpected Storm
Unfortunately for us, it was at this moment when the storm clouds that had been hovering to our north reached us. We laughed off the first few raindrops, but soon the wind picked up and the temperature precipitously dropped 15º. The rain turned into a painful pelting of hail. We were soon soaked through and shivering. Of course this was the one day I’d left our rain ponchos behind. Lesson learned! We raced back to the parking lot and into the warm shelter of a taxi, getting a mix of sympathy and laughter from the locals who had wisely huddled under the entrance building as soon as the storm rolled in.
